Recycling Special Wastes

City of Kingston Wastewater Treatment Sludge Management

I. Introduction

Recycling refers to the act of converting something, commonly waste, into reusable material. This paper reviews a case study on innovative recycling of multi-wastes found in waste water involved in waste water treatment before the effluent (the remaining water) is returned to the environment. The following topics will briefly explain on waste water treatment; quick history on the treatment plant being studied; their initiative to help the environment; followed by an assessment on their recycling initiative and perhaps some recommendations to conclude the paper.

II. Background

Waste water treatment is also sometimes termed as sewage treatment. Waste water refers to leftover waters used in households and industries which might contain substances such as food scraps, oils, chemicals and soaps. In this context, the mixture of these substances is often referred to as sludge. Waste water should be treated before returning it to the natural environment by reducing the contaminants through processes embedded in water treatment plants. Given the fact that humans use billions of gallons of water every day, this procedure is essential so not to overwhelm the environment’s natural water filtering processes and that the imbalance of ecosystem caused by excessive pollutants could be reduced (The USGS Water Science School, n.d.).

The Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) discussed in this paper refers to the WWTP in the City of Kingston, a city located in the Hudson River Valley of New York State. The WWTP was built in the early 1940s at the East Strand Street of the city, which then underwent through numerous upgrades throughout the years (Barton & Loguidice, 2015). The general location of the WWTP is represented in the following diagram [Diagram 1].

Diagram 1: General Location of Kingston WWTP
[Source: Barton and Loguidice (2015)]

Normally, the sludge from waste water is thickened and dewatered, usually followed by a process similar to phosphorus recovery. The wastewater separated from the sludge, which is then known as ‘effluent’, is returned back to the natural water bodies or transported to be reused for various purposes elsewhere. Next, the sludge is then digested using various techniques including but not limited to anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion and composting. After the sludge has been treated, the sludge remainders are often either injected into land or disposed into landfills (Wikipedia, n.d.). 

III. Recycling Initiative

In 2007, the City of Kingston and ASLAN Corporation agreed into a contract in which the latter would “[…] design, install and operate a sludge dryer/pelletizer.” (Barton & Loguidice, 2015). The WWTP’s new processes involved not only the sludge being dried and turned into fertilizer pellets, but also include utilizing waste methane gas to operate the said drying process (NYS Department of Environmental Conservation, n.d.). It was also stated that any excess gas from this process would then be directed to a power generator. The resulting pellets are sold or sometimes given to residents to supposedly improve soil conditions using the recycled nutrients (ibid).

Prior to the project, the initial sludge disposal cost the city around USD218,000 annually. This project was claimed to have successfully prevented thousands of tons of sludge from being discarded into landfills, reduced greenhouse gases emissions and also minimized relevant transportation costs among others (ibid). The Kingston WWTP community was awarded as a Climate Smart Community and their case became part of the Climate Smart Community Guide for Local Action (ibid).

IV. Assessment on the Initiative

According to the brief information disseminated regarding the WWTP, it was evident that the agencies involved took action to attempt to recycle the sludge obtained from the wastewater by converting it into reusable fertilizer pellets and recycle any waste products such as the excess methane gas to be utilized by other plants (ie. Enegry production plants). It could be observed that the processes implemented by the WWTP were imitating that of the symbiosis found in some species, and in this case, particularly the commensalism symbiosis, which refers to the relationship which benefits one, and neutral to the other. An example could be seen from when WWTP provides its waste (therefore neutral) to another plant which produces energy (hence benefited). 

However, it was recently found that the City of Kingston attempts to terminate the contract with the ASLAN Corporation. Zangla (2017) from Daily Freeman mentioned in their article as follows:

“According to an amended complaint filed in July 2016, the city claimed Aslan breached the contract by forcing the city to pay for various equipment parts that it was responsible for, costing Kingston on average of $13,800 a year. The complaint also said Aslan failed to install, operate and maintain vapor treatment equipment, which the city ultimately had to install at its own expense

Additionally, the complaint said at the time it was filed, Aslan’s pelletizer had been inoperable since July 2015. That resulted in the city resuming its previous practice of transporting its sewage sludge to the Ulster County Resource Recovery Agency for disposal. Transporting the sludge has been less expensive than the contract with Aslan, the complaint states.”

Based on the recent report, it is apparent that due to breach of contract, the project was halted and the sludge is again disposed into landfills, which could further affect the environment. Another plausible reason for the project termination is the adverse health effects the provision of recycled pellets could cause. One of the commentators of the above article, Craig Monk, posited that the processed sewage sludge is the major source for food and water contamination and the sources he provided are linked to controversial issues surrounding the use of processed sewage sludge as fertilizers and how its “safe” label is actually a deception. 

One of the sources is a Natural News article authored by Barker (2017) which talks about an upcoming documentary film “Biosludged” to expose the extreme hazards posed by ‘biosolids’, the constituents of the sludge-fertilizers.  An excerpt from the article is shown below:

““Biosludged” explores the history of the EPA’s biosolid scheme, which was approved in 1993 and allows the use of biosolid sludge to be spread on farms, gardens, playgrounds, forests and parks – even though this sewage sludge contains heavy metal and a wide range of other toxins.”

The article implies that due to its economic benefits, a number of environmental agencies and governments falsely educated the public that the processed sludge is safe to be used as fertilizers on farms, which could mean that the contaminated crops in such farms are also fed to livestock and which then end up onto people’s plates. It seems that even crucial environmental concerns could never escape controversies involving the country’s economy and politics. The Kingston WWTP recycling initiative might be a good step towards achieving sustainability. However, the method used to recycle and the materials used are in question in terms of its consequences to consumers’ health.

V. Recommendations/Conclusion

Some recommendations include conducting further research on how to ensure the safety of such waste materials before incorporating them into fertilizers which could end up in food and water consumed by humans; and that once proper recycling technique is achieved, the agencies in charge should remain responsible in maintaining the facilities that  make the waste-recycling possible.

In conclusion, while the case of wastewater sludge recycling in Kingston WWTP seems environmentally friendly on the face value, other in-depth studies argued otherwise. In addition, it is apparent that money and politics could become difficult obstacles in arriving to solutions in order to achieve environmental sustainability.

References

Barker, D. (2017). EPA Manufactures “Fake Facts” To Whitewash Extreme Health Hazards Of Biosolids; New 

Documentary “Biosludged” To Expose The Truth, Natural News. Retrieved from: http://www.naturalnews.com/2017-02-26-epa-manufactures-fake-facts-to-whitewash-extreme-health-and-environmental-hazards-of-biosolids-new-documentary-biosludged-to-expose-the-truth.html

Barton and Loguidice (2015). East Strand Street Wastewater Treatment Facility, City of

Kingston, Long-Term Capital Plan. Retrieved from: http://kingston-ny.gov/filestorage/8463/8511/8682/12517/KingstonWWTP-LongTermCapitalPlanReport-2015.pdf

NYS Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d.). Case Studies: Climate Smart Recycling 

and Composting. Retrieved from: http://www.dec.ny.gov/energy/57195.html

The USGS Water Science School (n.d.). Waste Water Treatment, Water Use. Retrieved from: 

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/wuww.html

Wikipedia (n.d.). Sewage Sludge Treatment. Retrieved from:  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_sludge_treatment

Zangla, A. (2017). Kingston Still Suing to Sever the Sludge-to-Fertilizer Pact, Daily Freeman. 

Retrieved from: http://www.dailyfreeman.com/general-news/20170121/kingston-still-suing-to-sever-sludge-to-fertilizer-pact

Relevant Links

https://disqus.com/by/craigmonk/

http://www.stopsewagedumpsellis.com/

 

Thoughts on the Biocultural Diversity at Niah Caves

This literature is a replicate of the author’s Field Journal during their trip to Niah Caves, Sarawak in 2019.

Prior to the trip, I have assumed a number of things incorrectly based on merely what few information I had access to at that time. For instance, I have thought that the Iban community had long (i.e. thousands of years) been part of the area, merely due to the presence of Iban longhouse nearby the caves. My background research on the Niah Caves was also lacking in depth and therefore I had poor understanding on the Niah Caves system and its surrounding area.

My view was narrowed to merely the historical context of the Niah Caves (e.g. Deep Skull) instead of the contemporary aspect of the interaction between the local natives and the caves, which may also demonstrate a form of Biocultural Diversity (BCD) of the Niah Caves in the present time. Although still lacking in (academic) depth, I at least have a better understanding of the BCD of the area and a clearer picture of the context than before the study trip. Previously, I have asked the following questions in my Background Notes*:-

*A background research (i.e. online search) conducted prior to the trip.

1. Who are the people and cultures still traditionally engaged with the Niah Caves (besides Iban and Punan, if any) and the areas surrounding the site?
2. How their cultural practices relate/contribute to Biodiversity (are they sustainable practices?)
3. Richness of their language? Personal stories from indigenous groups regarding languages/knowledge lost, if any.
4. Traditional Ecological Knowledge and in what language(s), if any.

Although I may still consider some of the questions above where relevant, my current focus is on the interaction of the native locals with the Niah National Park + nearby environments (particularly the Niah Caves) and its plausible connection to BCD.

OVERVIEW:

1. BRIEF BACKGROUND
2. THE IBAN LONGHOUSE EXPERIENCE
3. ADDRESSING THE QUESTIONS FROM BACKGROUND NOTES
4. THE IBAN COMMUNITY AND THE NIAH CAVES
5. MISCELLANEOUS INFO/DISCUSSIONS

1. BRIEF BACKGROUND

In my Background Notes, I mentioned about the discovery of the oldest modern human remains (Deep Skull). According to a study in 2016 by Curnoe et al., the individual was most likely related to the contemporary indigenous people of Borneo, particularly from the mainland East Asia. Before the trip, I easily and naively assumed that the Iban community had lineages from the human remains mentioned. I have also mistaken the earlier foragers in the area (Penans) as Punans. However, I did also consider alternative theories regarding the human remains that it could be of other ancient tribes believed to have been ‘wiped out’ due to their not wanting to submit to the one Supreme Creator (Ref: Al-Qur’an Surah 29, Verses: 38 – 40 and others). In addition, one of the elderlies of the Iban longhouse did share about how the bone remains found were bigger and longer [in size] than the average human today (in Borneo). Since this is just the Brief Background section, the discussion above may be brought forward to the miscellaneous info/discussion section.

From a verbally-shared information derived from one of the foster families, the Iban group is actually quite a recent community in this area than previously thought. I was told that several Iban firstcomers arrived here in the 1930s. I was also told by another elderly that their ancestors initially struggled to reside in the area and eventually succeeded after they were granted permission by the Penans to settle in the area and began to build the longhouse in 1945 (figures differ from different sources). This event indicates that the Penans were the earlier inhabitants and had been in the area longer, until most, if not all, embraced Islam and eventually settled in the more ‘Malay’ kampongs elsewhere. The Iban group mostly stayed until today. Although the Penans were earlier in the area (and stayed at the caves!), they are unnecessarily the descendants from the old modern human remains, as Curnoe et al. (2016) also suggests that the specimen are also similar to that of ‘Philippine Negritos‘ population. Even Penans could be the ‘newcomers’ due to their nomadic nature as hunter-gatherers.

2. THE IBAN LONGHOUSE EXPERIENCE

The local who was driving us to their longhouse shared a few information when asked about how the native people engage with the Niah National Park and if there are Native Customary Land Rights involved. Although some of them work away from Miri, such as in Bintulu, and only return once in a while; many of them still serve as the ‘cultural’ aspect of the tourism in the area. He also told us that they cultivate mostly tree fruits, especially the palm fruits (for the palm oil) as well as Barley field. My ‘foster parents’ told that their main income is from selling the palm fruits to the nearby factory. Prior to the palm oil demand from the food industry among others, they also had paddy farm about at least 20 years ago as well as chilli crops which stopped to flourish in the area about 3 years ago. In regards to the Native Customary Land Rights, we were told that their territory is indicated by the river. Therefore, anything beyond the river belongs to Niah National Park/government.

Before the longhouse homestay had electricity directly supplied to them, they used a generator. They also used to move from place to place via the river before the construction of the gravel road. The longhouse was considered as ‘recently’ refurnished with newer wood planks derived from a strong type of tree bark (if unmistaken, the tour guide must have referred to the ‘Belian Trees’ which are difficult to get lately due to its slow growth and great usage in the past). A bit of context/info – at the homestay we were divided into groups and each is assigned to a foster family for a day. Meals were served at the common area (the corridor) and were potlucks from every family who waited all of the guests to take the food before they could start taking the food as well. Upon hearing they speak, it seems their language has many similar terms (or at least similar sounding) to the Malay language. Hence, we could understand some conversations without the need of translation. Besides the Iban, there were stories of Indonesian and a Bugis couple staying at the longhouse to help at the palm tree plantation and other businesses run by the locals.

3. ADDRESSING THE QUESTIONS FROM BACKGROUND NOTES

For question 1:

As far as I know, the birds’ nests in the caves are [claimed as] privately owned by different individuals with different cultures, which possibly includes Malay culture. According to the map of Sarawak in 1927, Niah was still part of Brunei Darussalam which makes it no surprise when a local Iban told us that one of the swiftlets’ nests in the Niah Caves belongs to a former Bruneian who now have changed his citizenship to Malaysia and lives at “kampong Melayu” (referring to the person has adapted to the Malay lifestyle). Therefore, collection of bird nests from the caves still occur by people from different origins and cultures today. Besides that, they also use the guano as fertilisers and most of these fertilisers are sold. This makes me wonder if the declining growth of crops such as the chilli is due to deteriorating soil nutrients because they no longer replace enough guano fertilisers in their own soils as compared to decades ago, because of sales to other places. However, this is merely an assumption.

Question 2:

Back then, the Iban community celebrated Gawai festival as a form of celebrating their paddy harvest. Today, they still celebrate the festival but this cultural celebration no longer has the original link to its environment since the thwart in their rice cultivation and transition to mainly palm oil. Thus, probably only the cultural aspect remains intact. Seeing that the rice paddy and chilli crops are no longer feasible on these soils, it is not certain to conclude whether their practices back then were sustainable enough, or it is due to modern interruption of the pressures of economic demands to certain types of crops and/or the declining soil nutrients discussed in Question 1’s answer.

I did not manage to ask question 3 since my focus had shifted to a different aspect. In addition, this question is actually too vague at this point.

Question 4:

Another vague question, but from the information acquired, there are 2 categories of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) I would like to point out from this study trip.

1. Those of the Penans:-
   • Especially the older generations who stayed at the caves; built homes, etc.
   • The leftover wooden frames of their homes remain intact after hundreds of years, indicating their knowledge of biospecies of tree barks with outstanding strength and durability.
   • Their skills in woodwork are impressive; they did not need nails to screw the wooden frames in place; as can be observed, their woodwork and carpentry skills show strong architectural knowledge as their structures were strongly held in place nonetheless (like the concept of legos).
     
2. Those of the Ibans:-
   • The wooden planks used for their longhouse are derived from similar durable tree species, showing ecological knowledge.
   • The concern for lost TEK – there may be TEK of paddy cultivation which is specific to the Iban culture not passed down since it halted about 20 years ago.

4. THE IBAN COMMUNITY AND THE NIAH CAVES
(+ NEARBY ENVIRONMENTS)

Today, the people from the longhouse still sell food, drinks and souvenir items that they made themselves at the junction which leads to either the Niah National Park Headquarters or towards the Traders’ Cave entrance. The activity (of selling) was pioneered by their late grandparents and before them; as a source of income. In addition, they also earn from maintaining the public toilets which were built by the Chinese [community], located just next to their vendor stalls. The bird nests and guano for fertilisers are also one of their multiple sources of income derived from the Niah Caves. Since the Niah Caves are open to both locals and international visitors, the longhouse residents took this opportunity to cater the visitors with the homestay experience inclusive of traditional meals among other activities. Even their recent refurnishing of the longhouse were privately-funded, and not by the government. They opt for the community-based tourism to generate income from their cultural experience/lifestyle.

The locals also shared that back then when they still mainly harvested rice, when there were people who disrupted with their farms, they (disruptors) would be penalised to pay certain items or animals to the Iban community. For instance, if it was disrupted by machineries, the penalised should pay with a boar in exchange of the damages they caused. When asked if the Iban tribe still hunt certain animals in the wild, an uncle said they no longer do that nowadays, especially now they have access to towns via the gravel roads. All in all, although developments have led to changes in their landscape (e.g. new roads, wooden plank walkways toward the Niah Caves provided for visitors, etc.) as well as change in their income generation/subsistence strategies (i.e. homestays, souvenirs and palm oil); they managed to conserve their cultural setting, practices and values, reflecting a strong cultural continuity.

5. MISCELLANEOUS INFO / DISCUSSIONS

• We were told that the Niah Caves today are way far ‘quieter’ than it was before, implying that there are now lesser population of swiftlets and bats residing in the caves.
• During the trip, sightings in the forests and caves include: colourful butterflies, big lizards, millipedes which I’ve never seen before (with sharp pointy part at its back), snails, limestone waterdrops/puddle, and various species of plants.
• Relating the Iban to BCD; since they are considered as ‘newcomers’ after the Penans, there must be strong enough reason for them to risk through asking the Penans for permission to reside in the area. This choice may depict their strong TEK to know that this place would benefit their generations to come.
• This corresponds with Axelsen and Manrubia’s (2014) determinants for linguistic diversity where river density and landscape roughness positively correlates with linguistic diversity. The area of Niah Caves does in fact, contain river channels and considerably rough landscape (by observation and feel) that it attracts not only the various species of animals (hence some plants species are brought here); but also the indigenous people such as the Penans and Iban groups to look for sustenance and settle here.
• To continue the miscellaneous discussions from the brief background section; In the Islamic faith, we also believe that there was a major flooding event which wiped out humans/people as well as other natural disasters which befell the previous people who were bigger and stronger than modern humans today. (Ref: In the Qur’an, Surah 30, Verse 9). [Allahua’lam Bissowab]
• I did check Google Earth to verify if there was really paddy farm back then, however the map resolution decades ago weren’t as clear as today to be certain of what was on the lands (but there was no gravel road).

Reference

Axelsen, J. B., & Manrubia, S. (2014). River density and landscape roughness are universal determinants of linguistic diversity. Proceedings. Biological Sciences / The Royal Society, 281(1784), 20133029. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.3029

Curnoe, D., Datan, I., Taçon, P. S. C., Leh Moi Ung, C., & Sauffi, M. S. (2016). Deep skull from Niah cave and the Pleistocene peopling of southeast Asia. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2016.00075

Lessons from a Lonely Tree

I have spent years growing in this same home since I was in primary 4 or so. When I was younger, probably in my teenage years, I saw a tiny tree growing lonely in the middle of the grass field behind our backyard, just a few meters away from the beach. This view is accessible from my bedroom. (the photo below is for illustration purpose only)

As I was growing older and was attending university, I’ve spent majority of my time away from home because I stayed in-campus. I tried to exit my comfort zone, or rather expand it, and explored various activities and volunteering opportunities to find my passion, to no avail. There are one or two interests which have stuck with me but they don’t really spark something special in my heart. I am not sure. As I am reaching adulthood now, I still couldn’t find myself, my specific purpose or function on earth..

One fine day, I was back at home because I no longer stay in campus and am currently waiting for the date of my graduation to be announced. I walked towards my bedroom windows, drew the curtains and stared at the huge tree in the middle of the almost serene field.

It’s one of its kind in the area (I think), but it doesn’t seem to be so lonely anymore due to its numerous wide branches of different shades of leaves scraping the air in different directions. But a realization struck me deeply. I don’t see any fruits. The tree is already so big but I still don’t know what fruits it will bear. Just like a reflection of me, I thought. Is it fruitless? Maybe it’s not time yet. But it’s grown so big.. will it be a useless tree? But Allah creates everything with haqq, with purpose.. now I’m thinking.. the tree is big enough and somewhat provides shade below it, its dead fallen leaves could serve as fertilizers for the grass field — a death of a part of a tree which benefits others — and birds are seen gliding under the shade, they might have settled to nest in this safe place of solace. It’s the only one of its kind here I presume, for now. The tree stood still and stable, its leaves swaying with the breeze, as it remains unknown and seemingly insignificant to the rest of the world. Serving the area with its humble facilities. No flowers to impress nor sweet fruits to give (yet?)… just a servant of Allah serving others in the best way that it could..

 

أَلَمْ تَرَ كَيْفَ ضَرَبَ اللَّهُ مَثَلًا كَلِمَةً طَيِّبَةً كَشَجَرَةٍ طَيِّبَةٍ أَصْلُهَا ثَابِتٌ وَفَرْعُهَا فِي السَّمَاءِ – 14:24

Have you not considered how Allah presents an example, [making] a good word like a good tree, whose root is firmly fixed and its branches [high] in the sky?

تُؤْتِي أُكُلَهَا كُلَّ حِينٍ بِإِذْنِ رَبِّهَا ۗ وَيَضْرِبُ اللَّهُ الْأَمْثَالَ لِلنَّاسِ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَذَكَّرُونَ – 14:25

It produces its fruit all the time, by permission of its Lord. And Allah presents examples for the people that perhaps they will be reminded.

 

The lonely tree is in truth, not alone. Allahu Ajmal.

The rain feeds the nurseries. The trees feed the birds. The birds distribute the seeds. The seeds grow into crops. The crops feed the animals and people. Although that was over-simplified; in life, it’s always about giving and sharing. Benefiting others, in one way or another. Allahua’lam.

After I typed my story, I had the hunch to look for other lessons derived from trees. Here are some great ones. If you have extra time to spare for some more positivity, why not:

• http://www.awakin.org/read/view.php?tid=2363
• https://www.letsreallylive.com/blog/2017/3/20/four-life-lessons-found-in-trees
• http://brainprick.com/10-life-lessons-to-learn-from-trees/

Tectonic Thoughts

It has been awhile since I was really determined to publish my songs.

The notion of publishing my songs has always been an unstable decision. One second I’d thought to begin looking for producers tomorrow, the next day my motivation was pinched into dusts and ended up with a half-hearted search for the right producer, rather I almost never “searched”. It’s more like an observation to whom I had an encounter with on the worldwide web, and a session of making excuses that ‘this is not it’.

But I know for certain that I would, insya Allah, and I must, publish. The only question left is “when”. Why must? Because I made a promise to several people that I would. Breaking this promise wouldn’t be adhering to my principles as a person. I always wonder what’s stopping me from publishing. Is it my confidence? of what? my appearance? I don’t think I have a problem with that anymore. I feel content knowing that appearance is not what Allah looks at. But what is it that I fear? Sincerity. Is mine false? If it’s good now, is it going to remain good in the future? But isn’t this an on-going test everyone goes through? Am I running away from this test rather than facing it to pass the test?

I decided to look at the motive of publishing my songs. I want the message to at least be conveyed, that I did not mind who would sing this song – as long it is sung properly, the message conveyed sincerely, and the melody of choice trigger the right emotions. I am not a professional artist/composer/psychologist or even have the right knowledge maybe, but based on my feelings and intuition, I am particular with the ‘psychology’ of my songs, not just in how they are written, but also how the melody are suited to the kinds of emotions I want people to feel when listening to them. But it may be difficult to find someone who shares the same values and appreciation to my original songs as I do. In the end, I have to do it if I could do it. Only, I cannot do things alone. Now, where do I begin? Who, I wonder would be reading this?

PS. Publishing here refers to publishing with proper record labels, proper music production, etc.

To manage my fear, I present you one of my latest original songs..

Title: Husnudzonbillah (Thinking Good of God)

This song was written when I went through a difficult phase in my life and was slowly recovering from the plight. All praises and thanks to Allah for healing me. May Allah heal and save our souls from the deception of this world.

Lyrics:

When I see
All these doors
They are shutting right in front of me

I did not see (that)
The doors at the side (they)
Are open wide
Just for me

Bridge:
I was myself my distraction
I lost myself to my emotions

Chorus:
Forgive me my Rabb
For being biased to
The darkest of my thoughts
When I could just, turn to the light

To the light
That you shone
Just behind me
I’m not alone

I should’ve seen (that)
All the shadows mean
There is an illumination
Just behind me

[Bridge]

 

This may or may not be yours

Are you currently preparing for your (written) final exams and resits?

Remember, your study plans may differ from others’ but it is always beneficial for you to explore different study methods and eventually finding the most suitable one for you. Here’s an example:

STUDY PLAN

1. Identify your weakness and problematic questions.

Refer to your previous assignments and marked test papers. After doing this, you may also want to try one random relevant past exam paper just in case you missed any weakness — just answer as much as you are able to without referring to your notes. List in all the types of questions that you aren’t able to answer or if you got them incorrect. This list will be your priority when studying.

2. Revise and practice the problem areas until you understand well.

Now I am not saying that you should only revise the ones you are weak at, but you have to prioritize the ones you least understand. Focus on improving your performance in these areas until you do well.

3. Practice past year papers (PYPs) without time-constraint to familiarize yourself with the question patterns.

This is necessary in order for you to be able to quickly determine what kind of workings/mindset/concepts/theories you should think of when approaching certain questions.

4. Try the PYPs within the allocated time to identify some ways you can organize your question-prioritizing methods, answering techniques and time management.

It’s best to answer the ones you think as the most easy, but as precaution, you should set a time limit on each question so you don’t get carried away with the easy questions (eg. including useless info not asked by the question) and leaving not enough time for the other answers! Remember to allocate your time for each question within the set duration of your paper before you enter your examination room and practice as much as you can using your allocated time beforehand.

5. Read the syllabus paper of your subject(s) to determine which aspects of your answers you should emphasize on when presenting your answers in order to catch the examiner’s attention.

Although this study plan is just an example, I hope you gained some beneficial information and insightful ideas from this post. All the best!

How to use my model essays

Hi there! It has been a while since I last wrote a model essay for a psychology topic.

First of all, I would like you to keep in mind that the essays I’ve posted so far are my practice answers for the Section B questions of the CIE Psychology A Level (9698) Specialist Options:

1. Psychology & Health

2. Psychology & Organization

You should notice by now that I put the Main Topic as the title and include the question in the content so your reading experience would be smoother. I also break down my essays with sub-headings (eg. definition, types, etc) so you can focus on certain areas of the topic discussed. This will also, I hope, help you in planning better essay structure for your own essays. You may also find some references at the bottom of the essays, of which I would suggest you check to further your knowledge on the topic.

Secondly, you should know that the syllabus changes over time. Although the topics may have changed, you can still utilize my essays in terms of their structure, flow and the technical terms used. Familiarize yourself with the content arrangement and try to be straight-forward in your answers. Avoid juggling difficult terms and phrases which can confuse the examiners.

Since these are only my practice answers, I cannot guarantee that you will be rewarded with full marks by paraphrasing my essays. Remember, plagiarism is prohibited! You may use my essays as your reference to write even better essays of your own, and you may also identify some mistakes from mine so you can improve your answers to the exam questions.

All the best!

Adherence to Medical Advice

What have psychologists learned about adherence to medical advice among patients?

Psychologists have discovered patterns and reasons behind non-adherence towards medical advice among patients, which have helped them to formulate strategies to enhance patients’ compliance to medical requests.

Definition

In this context, adherence refers to the patients’ tendency to comply to prescriptions, appointments, shifts in routine and engagement in preventative measures (e.g. oral contraceptives) as advised by practitioners.

Causes of non-adherence

Taylor (1990) found in his research that 95% of patients failed to adhere to some treatment regimes, which may be on short-term treatments or on chronic conditions (Safarino, 1994). The non-adherence may be caused by the patients exercising their free will or due to a rational decision they believe is better for them. For instance, Bulpitt (1998) discovered that many male participants decided to stop consuming the newly tested hypertension drug due to negative side effects.

Types of non-adherence

Besides complete or partial non-adherence, it was also found that non-adherence can exist in the form of patients tailoring their treatment regime to suit to their preferences and lifestyles.

Measuring non-adherence

Some psychologists measure non-adherence within patients to see the underlying causes of this occurring. Adherence/non-adherence can be measured by means of pill accounting, medication dispensers, through blood and urine tests, and by recording the number of repeat prescriptions from a pharmacy. Roth (1987) concluded that blood and urine levels are the best available measures of medicine intake. However, Sherman et al. (2000) claimed that telephoning a patient’s pharmacy is an accurate method (results showed 91% accuracy) and recording the number of attended appointments is 100% accurate.

Improving adherence

Adherence can be improved by either changing practitioners’ behaviour (DiMatteo and DiNicola); communication style (Inui et al., 1976); and presentation technique (Ley et al., 1988). Ley recommends that practitioners should highlight key points at the beginning for primacy effect, use simple non-jargon words, organize information into categories and use a combination of verbal and visual information. Lewin et al. (1992) emphasized on providing discharged heart patients with instruction manuals for Heart Health.

Reference(s)

• David Clarke, 2013, Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide, Hodder Education, UK.

Pain in Psychology

What have psychologists discovered about pain?

Definition of pain

Psychologists have found out many things underlying pain, including its theories and types; measurement of pain; as well as ways of managing and controlling pain. The definition of pain is very subjective. It is generally described as the unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. However, a nursing definition of pain is ‘whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever he says it does’.

Theories of pain

There are two main theories of pain. The Specificity Theory of Pain proposed by Descartes (1644) states that there are four sensory receptors in bodily tissues (i.e. warmth, cold, pressure and pain) that connect to a pain center in the brain. However, this theory is superseded by Melzack and Wall’s (1965) Gate Control Theory which explains that physical pain is not directly felt upon the infliction of pain on the pain receptors, but our spinal cord acts as a neurological ‘gate’ that either blocks or allows pain signals to proceed to the brain. In other words, their theory states that pain comprises of both physiological and psychological factors — which explains why sometimes we did not feel the paper cut on our finger until after some time, usually after we notice it.

Types of pain

There are also different types of pain. Acute pain is the type of pain which subsides after some time and the damage eventually heals. Chronic pain is said to occur when the pain does not subside even though the damage is apparently healed, sometimes lasting for months or years. Psychogenic pain is the pain caused by some underlying psychological disorder such as depression and anxiety. Phantom limb pain is the feeling that an amputated body part is still ‘there’, generally described as a burning, itching or tingling sensation that may or may not be painful.

Measuring pain

Psychologists have attempted to measure pain using self report and observational methods, the most common method being the questionnaires. Melzack (1975) developed the McGail Pain Questionnaire (MPQ) to ask patients the locations, type, and intensity of their pain. Pain behaviours can also be observed by using the UAB Pain Behaviour Scale as a guide. Other examples of pain measurement tools include the Children’s Comprehensive Pain Questionnaire (McGrath, 1987) and Wong-Baker Scale which are to be answered by children.

Managing & controlling pain

Pain can be managed by medical, psychological or alternative techniques. Medical techniques include the use of analgesic medicines or drugs such as aspirin (blocking pain perception via the Peripheral Nervous System) and morphine (affecting the Central Nervous System directly). Local anesthetics can be applied externally (e.g. rub-in cream) but are more effective when injected to the site. Psychological techniques include attention diversion, non-pain imagery, and cognitive redefinition (positive thinking). Alternative techniques include the use of acupuncture and stimulation therapy e.g. TENS.

It has to be noted though, that the different ways pain is being measured with can be assessed for their effectiveness because of the fact that there are many types of pain, hence one measurement method may only work for a certain type of pain.

References

• David Clarke, 2013, Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide, Hodder Education, UK.
• Karen Rodham, 2010, Health Psychology (Palgrave Insights in Psychology), Palgrave Macmillan, NY.

Leadership and Management

What have psychologists learned about Leadership & Management?

Definition

To begin with, leadership refers to the function and ability of  a person to guide or direct a group. Management is the process of dealing with or controlling things or people.

Theories & Models

Psychologists have discovered different theories of leadership; leadership styles and their effectiveness; as well as the information exchange models for leaders and followers.

There are several opposing and standalone leadership theories. Universalist leadership theories look at the typical characteristics found among effective leaders. The great man-woman theory (Wood, 1913) argues that great leadership qualities are innate, not learned.

Charismatic (transformational) leaders are those who could inspire others through their confidence, energy and determination. The two leader beliefs outlined by McGregor(1960) are Theory X – when workers are seen as unmotivated and avoid work; Theory Y – workers seem self-motivated, work hard and committed.

Behavioural theories of leadership, on the other hand, focus on the actual behaviours which contribute to successful leadership. In other words, the great leadership behaviours can actually be identified, learned, and applied by “normal” people in order to become effective leaders.

Leadership Styles & Effectiveness

There are three main models of leadership styles. Fiedler(1976) believes the contingency approach as the best leadership style, in which leaders are able to behave accordingly to different situations. Hersey and Blanchard’s (1980) situational leadership theory in contrast states that successful leaders are those who could adapt their leadership style to the group they are attempting to lead. Muczyk and Reimann (1987) proposed the four “pure” styles of leader behaviour.

In conclusion, the effectiveness of leadership is determined by the combination of the person’s leadership style of behaviour and the favourableness of the situation’s characteristics.

The Leader-Member Information Exchange Models

For organisations to function properly, leader’s and followers’ performance must be smooth and this relies on the information exchange models used. Two well-known exchange models are the leader-member exchange model (Hersey and Blanchard’s models merged) and the Normative Decision Theory (Vroom and Yetton, 1973), which was later known as Vroom-Yetton-Jago decision making model. This model includes these styles of decision-making: Autocratic-self decision (A1); Autocratic-others’ info, self decision; Consultative-individuals(C1); Consultative-as a group(C2); and meeting and accepting the group’s decision(G).

There are many other theories of leadership which have been implemented in organisations and real-life working environments. However, there are benefits and drawbacks for each theory or strategy so careful assessment should be made before applying any of them in your firm.

References

• David Clarke, 2013, Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide, Hodder Education, UK.
• Michael Coates, 2001, Psychology and Organizations (Heinemann Themes in Psychology), Heinemann, UK.

Stress in Psychology

What have psychologists learned about stress?

Psychologists have discovered many things regarding stress, including its causes, measures and management.

Definition

Stress has various meanings depending on who is using it and how it is used. Safarino(1990) defined stress as the condition in which there is a perceived discrepancy between the demands of a situation and the resources of a person’s biological, psychological and social systems.

Theories of stress

Stress is known to involve the interaction between physiological and psychological factors. One model which emphasizes on the physiological workings of stress is explained by the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model developed by Selye(1956). The model proposes that there are three stages underlying stress: our ‘alarm reaction’ to stressor; our ‘resistance’ attempt to cope with the stressor; and the ‘exhaustion’ stage after being repeatedly exposed to the stressor.

Causes of stress

There are many causes of stress. One being ‘work stress’ as found out by Johansson et al (1978) ‘s study on different types of work conditions in a Swedish sawmill. She discovered that those with isolated and arduous working conditions were susceptible to stress than the cleaners who worked on shifts. Other sources of stress include life events (Holmes & Rahe, 1967); personality type A (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974) and daily hassles (Lazarus et al., 1981).

Measuring stress

Stress can be measured by physiological and psychological means. Examples for the former include blood pressure tests, Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) developed by Geer and Maisel (1972), and blood or urine samples (Eg. Lundberg’s study on stress hormones levels in people commuting to work; Johansson et al.’s study at a Swedish sawmill). The latter includes asking people with self-report questionnaires such as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) devised by Holmes and Rahe, where people rank life events such as ‘death of spouse’ with values; hassles and uplifts scale devised by Lazarus et al.; and Type A personality questionnaires by Friedman and Rosenman, as Type As are prone to stress due to their tendency to be more assertive, aggressive and competitive.

Managing stress

Stress can be managed either by medical approach or by cognitive-behavioural technique. Those who prefer the former might opt for drug treatment to lower their stress hormone levels (e.g. adrenaline). Those who prefer the latter could use the biofeedback method (the control of physiological processes through cognitive processing). Budzynski et al. (1973) found those who had combined biofeedback with muscle relaxation training reported fewer headaches compared to a control group.

It has to be noted though, that often, these discoveries about stress are questionable in terms of their reliability and validity, hence we have to be cautious in generalizing their findings to our real-life situations.

References

• David Clarke, 2013, Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide, Hodder Education, UK.
• Karen Rodham, 2010, Health Psychology (Palgrave Insights in Psychology), Palgrave Macmillan, NY.